14. Patterns of zoonotic diseases and associated socio-economic factors in tanzania: A scoping review
Nội dung chính của bài viết
Tóm tắt
Zoonotic diseases (ZDs) are important contributors of infectious disease burden especially in developing nations. In Tanzania, several factors have been associated with the distribution of ZDs among different populations. This review aimed at describing such a pattern together with their associated socio-economic factors. The search for relevant articles was carried in PubMed/MedLine with additional hand searched articles through Google and Google-Scholar. We identified a total of 1,087 relevant articles, 27 of which met our inclusion criteria. Our findings showed that the prevalence of Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Q Fever, Rift Valley Fever, Cysticercosis, Echinococcosis, Schistosomiasis, Toxoplasmosis, Fascioliasis and Cryptosporidiosis were 0.6 - 48.4%, 10 - 33.9%, 5 - 20.3%, 4.5 - 5.2%, 2.7 - 16.7%, 11.3%, 15.8 - 63.91%, 57.7%, 21% and 4.3% respectively, depending on geographical locations. On other hand, levels of education, occupation, residence and ethnicity were associated with increased risks of ZDs in Tanzania. This review reinforces the need for more resilient surveillance and monitoring systems that can offer quality data for evidence-based policing. Likewise, it underscores the neglected burdens of most ZDs in Tanzania.
Chi tiết bài viết
Từ khóa
Zoonotic disease, human, Tanzania, epidemiology
Tài liệu tham khảo
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2. Grace D, Gilbert J, Randolph T, Kang’ethe E. The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an Ecohealth approach to their assessment. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44 Suppl 1:S67-73. doi:10.1007/s11250-012-0209-y.
3. Patz Jonathan A., Daszak Peter, Tabor Gary M., et al. Unhealthy Landscapes: Policy Recommendations on Land Use Change and Infectious Disease Emergence. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2004;112(10):1092-1098. doi:10.1289/ehp.6877.
4. World Health Organization, United Kingdom. Dept. for International Development. Animal Health Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Organisation for Animal Health. The control of neglected zoonotic diseases: a route to poverty alleviation : report of a joint WHO/DFID-AHP meeting, 20 and 21 September 2005, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, with the participation of FAO and OIE. 2006;(WHO/SDE/FOS/2006.1). Accessed December 24, 2021. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43485.
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7. Chipwaza B, Mhamphi GG, Ngatunga SD, et al. Prevalence of bacterial febrile illnesses in children in Kilosa district, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(5):e0003750. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003750.
8. Swai ES, Schoonman L. Human Brucellosis: Seroprevalence and Risk Factors Related to High Risk Occupational Groups in Tanga Municipality, Tanzania. Zoonoses and Public Health. 2009; 56(4):183-187. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01175.x.
9. Sagamiko FD, Muma JB, Karimuribo ED, et al. Seroprevalence of human Brucellosis and associated risk factors among high risk occupations in Mbeya Region of Tanzania. bioRxiv. Published online July 1, 2019:688705. doi:10.1101/688705.
10. Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Muller SK, Malakalinga JJ, Kazwala RR. Epidemiology of Brucella infection in the human, livestock and wildlife interface in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania. BMC Vet Res. 2015;11(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0504-8.
11. Mirambo MM, Mgode GF, Malima ZO, et al. Seropositivity of Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies among abattoir workers and meat vendors in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania: A call for one health approach control strategies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(6). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006600.
12. Nonga HE, Mwakapeje ER. Trends of human brucellosis in pastoralist communities based on hospital records during 2013–2016 in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Journal. 2017; 32(1):34-40. doi:10.4314/tvj.v32i1.
13. John K, Fitzpatrick J, French N, et al. Quantifying Risk Factors for Human Brucellosis in Rural Northern Tanzania. PLOS ONE. 2010; 5(4):e9968. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009968.
14. Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Muller SK, Mhamphi GG, Kazwala RR. Predominant Leptospiral Serogroups Circulating among Humans, Livestock and Wildlife in Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003607.
15. Mgode GF, Japhary MM, Mhamphi GG, Kiwelu I, Athaide I, Machang’u RS. Leptospirosis in sugarcane plantation and fishing communities in Kagera northwestern Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019; 13(5). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007225.
16. Crump JA, Morrissey AB, Nicholson WL, et al. Etiology of Severe Non-malaria Febrile Illness in Northern Tanzania: A Prospective Cohort Study. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2013;7(7):e2324. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002324.
17. Schoonman L, Swai ES. Risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of leptospirosis, amongst at-risk groups in and around Tanga city, Tanzania. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology. 2009;103(8):711-718. doi:10.1179/000349809X12554106963393.
18. Muller SK, Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Misinzo G, Kazwala RR. Human leptospirosis in Tanzania: sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirm that pathogenic Leptospira species circulate among agro-pastoralists living in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:273. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1588-x.
19. Prabhu M, Nicholson WL, Roche AJ, et al. Q Fever, Spotted Fever Group, and Typhus Group Rickettsioses Among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis. 2011; 53(4):e8-e15. doi:10.1093/cid/cir411.
20. Mwanjali G, Kihamia C, Kakoko DVC, et al. Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Human Taenia Solium Infections in Mbozi District, Mbeya Region, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002102.
21. Schmidt V, O’Hara MC, Ngowi B, et al. Taenia solium cysticercosis and taeniasis in urban settings: Epidemiological evidence from a health-center based study among people with epilepsy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(12). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007751.
22. Heinrich N, Saathoff E, Weller N, et al. High Seroprevalence of Rift Valley Fever and Evidence for Endemic Circulation in Mbeya Region, Tanzania, in a Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001557.
23. Ahmed A, Makame J, Robert F, Julius K, Mecky M. Sero-prevalence and spatial distribution of Rift Valley fever infection among agro-pastoral and pastoral communities during Interepidemic period in the Serengeti ecosystem, northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3183-9
24. Lukambagire AHS, Mchaile DN, Nyindo M. Diagnosis of human fascioliasis in Arusha region, northern Tanzania by microscopy and clinical manifestations in patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15. doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1326-9.
25. Khan MB, Sonaimuthu P, Lau YL, et al. High seroprevalence of echinococossis, schistosomiasis and toxoplasmosis among the populations in Babati and Monduli districts, Tanzania. Parasit Vectors. 2014; 7. doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0505-7.
26. Mugono M, Konje E, Kuhn S, Mpogoro FJ, Morona D, Mazigo HD. Intestinal schistosomiasis and geohelminths of Ukara Island, North-Western Tanzania: prevalence, intensity of infection and associated risk factors among school children. Parasit Vectors. 2014; 7. doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0612-5.
27. Mazigo HD, Kirway L, Ambrose EA. Prevalence and intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection in pediatric populations on antiretroviral therapy in north-western Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2019; 9(7). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029749.
28. Said K, Hella J, Knopp S, et al. Schistosoma, other helminth infections, and associated risk factors in preschool-aged children in urban Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017; 11(11). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006017
29. Parsons MB, Travis D, Lonsdorf EV, et al. Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in Humans, Wild Primates, and Domesticated Animals in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015; 9(2). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003529.
30. Igawe PB, Okolocha E, Kia GS, Bugun II, Balogun MS, Nguku P. Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated risk factors among abattoir workers in Bauchi State, Nigeria. The Pan African Medical Journal. 2020; 35(33). doi:10.11604/pamj.2020.35.33.18134.
31. Acharya D, Hwang SD, Park JH. Seroreactivity and Risk Factors Associated with Human Brucellosis among Cattle Slaughterhouse Workers in South Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(11). doi:10.3390/ijerph15112396.
32. Tumwine G, Matovu E, Kabasa JD, Owiny DO, Majalija S. Human brucellosis: sero-prevalence and associated risk factors in agro-pastoral communities of Kiboga District, Central Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2015;15. doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2242-z.
33. Makala R, Majigo MV, Bwire GM, Kibwana U, Mirambo MM, Joachim A. Seroprevalence of Brucella infection and associated factors among pregnant women receiving antenatal care around human, wildlife and livestock interface in Ngorongoro ecosystem, Northern Tanzania. A cross-sectional study. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2020; 20(1): 152. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-4873-7.
34. Saddique A, Ali S, Akhter S, et al. Acute Febrile Illness Caused by Brucella Abortus Infection in Humans in Pakistan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019; 16(21). doi:10.3390/ijerph16214071.
35. Bouley AJ, Biggs HM, Stoddard RA, et al. Brucellosis among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012; 87(6): 1105-1111. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0327.
36. Njeru J, Melzer F, Wareth G, et al. Human Brucellosis in Febrile Patients Seeking Treatment at Remote Hospitals, Northeastern Kenya, 2014–2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016; 22(12): 2160-2164. doi:10.3201/eid2212.160285.
37. Tsegay A, Tuli G, Kassa T, Kebede N. Seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis in abattoir workers at Debre Zeit and Modjo export abattoir, Central Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis. 2017;17. doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2208-0.
38. Madut NA, Ocan M, Muwonge A, et al. Sero-prevalence of brucellosis among slaughterhouse workers in Bahr el Ghazal region, South Sudan. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2019; 19(1):450. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-4066-4.
39. Biggs HM, Hertz JT, Munishi OM, et al. Estimating Leptospirosis Incidence Using Hospital-Based Surveillance and a Population-Based Health Care Utilization Survey in Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(12). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002589.
40. Rafizah AAN, Aziah BD, Azwany YN, et al. A hospital-based study on seroprevalence of leptospirosis among febrile cases in northeastern Malaysia. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2013; 17(6):e394-e397. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2012.12.012.
41. Biggs HM, Bui DM, Galloway RL, et al. Leptospirosis among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011; 85(2):275-281. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-0176.
42. Dreyfus A, Dyal JW, Pearson R, et al. Leptospira Seroprevalence and Risk Factors in Health Centre Patients in Hoima District, Western Uganda. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2016; 10(8): e0004858. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004858.
43. Njeru J, Henning K, Pletz MW, et al. Febrile patients admitted to remote hospitals in Northeastern Kenya: seroprevalence, risk factors and a clinical prediction tool for Q-Fever. BMC Infect Dis. 2016; 16. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1569-0.
44. Ahmed A, Makame J, Robert F, Julius K, Mecky M. Sero-prevalence and spatial distribution of Rift Valley fever infection among agro-pastoral and pastoral communities during Interepidemic period in the Serengeti ecosystem, northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2018; 18(1): 276. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3183-9.
45. Khan MB, Sonaimuthu P, Lau YL, et al. High seroprevalence of echinococossis, schistosomiasis and toxoplasmosis among the populations in Babati and Monduli districts, Tanzania. Published online 2014:9.
46. Mazigo HD, Kirway L, Ambrose EA. Prevalence and intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection in pediatric populations on antiretroviral therapy in north-western Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2019; 9(7): e029749. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029749.
47. Said K, Hella J, Knopp S, et al. Schistosoma, other helminth infections, and associated risk factors in preschool-aged children in urban Tanzania. Downs JA, ed. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017; 11(11): e0006017. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006017.
2. Grace D, Gilbert J, Randolph T, Kang’ethe E. The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an Ecohealth approach to their assessment. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44 Suppl 1:S67-73. doi:10.1007/s11250-012-0209-y.
3. Patz Jonathan A., Daszak Peter, Tabor Gary M., et al. Unhealthy Landscapes: Policy Recommendations on Land Use Change and Infectious Disease Emergence. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2004;112(10):1092-1098. doi:10.1289/ehp.6877.
4. World Health Organization, United Kingdom. Dept. for International Development. Animal Health Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Organisation for Animal Health. The control of neglected zoonotic diseases: a route to poverty alleviation : report of a joint WHO/DFID-AHP meeting, 20 and 21 September 2005, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, with the participation of FAO and OIE. 2006;(WHO/SDE/FOS/2006.1). Accessed December 24, 2021. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43485.
5. Prime minister’s office united republic of Tanzania, United States Department of Defense (DoD), Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR), Cooperative Biological Engagement Program (CBEP). The United Republic of Tanzania One Health Strategic Plan 2015 – 2020. World Health Organization; 2015. Accessed March 15, 2020. http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/fileadmin/documents/dpg_internal/dpg_working_groups_clusters/cluster_2/health/Key_Sector_Documents/Tanzania_Key_Health_Documents/FINAL_URT_One_Health_Strategy_Plan_20151021.pdf.
6.Final_urt_one_health_strategy_plan_20151021.Pdf. Accessed march 15, 2020. Http://www.Tzdpg.Or.Tz/fileadmin/documents/dpg_internal/dpg_working_groups_clusters/cluster_2/health/key_sector_documents/tanzania_key_health_documents/final_urt_one_health_strategy_plan_20151021.Pdf.
7. Chipwaza B, Mhamphi GG, Ngatunga SD, et al. Prevalence of bacterial febrile illnesses in children in Kilosa district, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(5):e0003750. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003750.
8. Swai ES, Schoonman L. Human Brucellosis: Seroprevalence and Risk Factors Related to High Risk Occupational Groups in Tanga Municipality, Tanzania. Zoonoses and Public Health. 2009; 56(4):183-187. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01175.x.
9. Sagamiko FD, Muma JB, Karimuribo ED, et al. Seroprevalence of human Brucellosis and associated risk factors among high risk occupations in Mbeya Region of Tanzania. bioRxiv. Published online July 1, 2019:688705. doi:10.1101/688705.
10. Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Muller SK, Malakalinga JJ, Kazwala RR. Epidemiology of Brucella infection in the human, livestock and wildlife interface in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania. BMC Vet Res. 2015;11(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0504-8.
11. Mirambo MM, Mgode GF, Malima ZO, et al. Seropositivity of Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies among abattoir workers and meat vendors in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania: A call for one health approach control strategies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(6). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006600.
12. Nonga HE, Mwakapeje ER. Trends of human brucellosis in pastoralist communities based on hospital records during 2013–2016 in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Journal. 2017; 32(1):34-40. doi:10.4314/tvj.v32i1.
13. John K, Fitzpatrick J, French N, et al. Quantifying Risk Factors for Human Brucellosis in Rural Northern Tanzania. PLOS ONE. 2010; 5(4):e9968. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009968.
14. Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Muller SK, Mhamphi GG, Kazwala RR. Predominant Leptospiral Serogroups Circulating among Humans, Livestock and Wildlife in Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003607.
15. Mgode GF, Japhary MM, Mhamphi GG, Kiwelu I, Athaide I, Machang’u RS. Leptospirosis in sugarcane plantation and fishing communities in Kagera northwestern Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019; 13(5). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007225.
16. Crump JA, Morrissey AB, Nicholson WL, et al. Etiology of Severe Non-malaria Febrile Illness in Northern Tanzania: A Prospective Cohort Study. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2013;7(7):e2324. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002324.
17. Schoonman L, Swai ES. Risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of leptospirosis, amongst at-risk groups in and around Tanga city, Tanzania. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology. 2009;103(8):711-718. doi:10.1179/000349809X12554106963393.
18. Muller SK, Assenga JA, Matemba LE, Misinzo G, Kazwala RR. Human leptospirosis in Tanzania: sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirm that pathogenic Leptospira species circulate among agro-pastoralists living in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:273. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1588-x.
19. Prabhu M, Nicholson WL, Roche AJ, et al. Q Fever, Spotted Fever Group, and Typhus Group Rickettsioses Among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis. 2011; 53(4):e8-e15. doi:10.1093/cid/cir411.
20. Mwanjali G, Kihamia C, Kakoko DVC, et al. Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Human Taenia Solium Infections in Mbozi District, Mbeya Region, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002102.
21. Schmidt V, O’Hara MC, Ngowi B, et al. Taenia solium cysticercosis and taeniasis in urban settings: Epidemiological evidence from a health-center based study among people with epilepsy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(12). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007751.
22. Heinrich N, Saathoff E, Weller N, et al. High Seroprevalence of Rift Valley Fever and Evidence for Endemic Circulation in Mbeya Region, Tanzania, in a Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001557.
23. Ahmed A, Makame J, Robert F, Julius K, Mecky M. Sero-prevalence and spatial distribution of Rift Valley fever infection among agro-pastoral and pastoral communities during Interepidemic period in the Serengeti ecosystem, northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3183-9
24. Lukambagire AHS, Mchaile DN, Nyindo M. Diagnosis of human fascioliasis in Arusha region, northern Tanzania by microscopy and clinical manifestations in patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15. doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1326-9.
25. Khan MB, Sonaimuthu P, Lau YL, et al. High seroprevalence of echinococossis, schistosomiasis and toxoplasmosis among the populations in Babati and Monduli districts, Tanzania. Parasit Vectors. 2014; 7. doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0505-7.
26. Mugono M, Konje E, Kuhn S, Mpogoro FJ, Morona D, Mazigo HD. Intestinal schistosomiasis and geohelminths of Ukara Island, North-Western Tanzania: prevalence, intensity of infection and associated risk factors among school children. Parasit Vectors. 2014; 7. doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0612-5.
27. Mazigo HD, Kirway L, Ambrose EA. Prevalence and intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection in pediatric populations on antiretroviral therapy in north-western Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2019; 9(7). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029749.
28. Said K, Hella J, Knopp S, et al. Schistosoma, other helminth infections, and associated risk factors in preschool-aged children in urban Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017; 11(11). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006017
29. Parsons MB, Travis D, Lonsdorf EV, et al. Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in Humans, Wild Primates, and Domesticated Animals in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015; 9(2). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003529.
30. Igawe PB, Okolocha E, Kia GS, Bugun II, Balogun MS, Nguku P. Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated risk factors among abattoir workers in Bauchi State, Nigeria. The Pan African Medical Journal. 2020; 35(33). doi:10.11604/pamj.2020.35.33.18134.
31. Acharya D, Hwang SD, Park JH. Seroreactivity and Risk Factors Associated with Human Brucellosis among Cattle Slaughterhouse Workers in South Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(11). doi:10.3390/ijerph15112396.
32. Tumwine G, Matovu E, Kabasa JD, Owiny DO, Majalija S. Human brucellosis: sero-prevalence and associated risk factors in agro-pastoral communities of Kiboga District, Central Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2015;15. doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2242-z.
33. Makala R, Majigo MV, Bwire GM, Kibwana U, Mirambo MM, Joachim A. Seroprevalence of Brucella infection and associated factors among pregnant women receiving antenatal care around human, wildlife and livestock interface in Ngorongoro ecosystem, Northern Tanzania. A cross-sectional study. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2020; 20(1): 152. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-4873-7.
34. Saddique A, Ali S, Akhter S, et al. Acute Febrile Illness Caused by Brucella Abortus Infection in Humans in Pakistan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019; 16(21). doi:10.3390/ijerph16214071.
35. Bouley AJ, Biggs HM, Stoddard RA, et al. Brucellosis among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012; 87(6): 1105-1111. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0327.
36. Njeru J, Melzer F, Wareth G, et al. Human Brucellosis in Febrile Patients Seeking Treatment at Remote Hospitals, Northeastern Kenya, 2014–2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016; 22(12): 2160-2164. doi:10.3201/eid2212.160285.
37. Tsegay A, Tuli G, Kassa T, Kebede N. Seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis in abattoir workers at Debre Zeit and Modjo export abattoir, Central Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis. 2017;17. doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2208-0.
38. Madut NA, Ocan M, Muwonge A, et al. Sero-prevalence of brucellosis among slaughterhouse workers in Bahr el Ghazal region, South Sudan. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2019; 19(1):450. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-4066-4.
39. Biggs HM, Hertz JT, Munishi OM, et al. Estimating Leptospirosis Incidence Using Hospital-Based Surveillance and a Population-Based Health Care Utilization Survey in Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(12). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002589.
40. Rafizah AAN, Aziah BD, Azwany YN, et al. A hospital-based study on seroprevalence of leptospirosis among febrile cases in northeastern Malaysia. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2013; 17(6):e394-e397. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2012.12.012.
41. Biggs HM, Bui DM, Galloway RL, et al. Leptospirosis among Hospitalized Febrile Patients in Northern Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011; 85(2):275-281. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-0176.
42. Dreyfus A, Dyal JW, Pearson R, et al. Leptospira Seroprevalence and Risk Factors in Health Centre Patients in Hoima District, Western Uganda. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2016; 10(8): e0004858. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004858.
43. Njeru J, Henning K, Pletz MW, et al. Febrile patients admitted to remote hospitals in Northeastern Kenya: seroprevalence, risk factors and a clinical prediction tool for Q-Fever. BMC Infect Dis. 2016; 16. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1569-0.
44. Ahmed A, Makame J, Robert F, Julius K, Mecky M. Sero-prevalence and spatial distribution of Rift Valley fever infection among agro-pastoral and pastoral communities during Interepidemic period in the Serengeti ecosystem, northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2018; 18(1): 276. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3183-9.
45. Khan MB, Sonaimuthu P, Lau YL, et al. High seroprevalence of echinococossis, schistosomiasis and toxoplasmosis among the populations in Babati and Monduli districts, Tanzania. Published online 2014:9.
46. Mazigo HD, Kirway L, Ambrose EA. Prevalence and intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection in pediatric populations on antiretroviral therapy in north-western Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2019; 9(7): e029749. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029749.
47. Said K, Hella J, Knopp S, et al. Schistosoma, other helminth infections, and associated risk factors in preschool-aged children in urban Tanzania. Downs JA, ed. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017; 11(11): e0006017. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006017.